This alphabetical system is still used by the Arabs, much as Roman numerals are used in the West for outlines and in enumerating kings, emperors, and popes. 8. Abu Bakr was known as the first caliph (from khalifa, the Arabic for successor). Islam has helped to shape the culture from the language, to customs, to business, to . Photo: The Hijaz Railway, completed by the Turks in 1908, linked Damascus with Medina, eight hundred miles to the south. The tughra later came to be used both in Turkey and by rulers of t the Arab countries as a kind of royal insignia or emblem, on coins and stamps and wherever a coat of arms or royal monogram would be used by European governments. The Living. They were able to draw on and fuse together the mathematical developments of both Greece and India. As the Muslims were not completely defeated, the Meccans, with an army of ten thousand, attacked Medina again two years later but with quite different results. The Ghaznavids patronized al-Biruni, one of the greatest and most original scholars of medival Islam, and the Hamdanids, a purely Arab dynasty, patronized such poets as al-Mutanabbi and philosophers like the great al-Farabi, whose work kept the flame of Arab culture alive in a difficult period. In . The Umayyads, furthermore, encouraged such writers as 'Abd Allah ibn al-Muqaffa' and 'Abd al-Hamid ibn Yahya al-Katib, whose clear, expository Arabic prose has rarely been surpassed. There was also a vast literature on the correct deportment of princes, as well as anthologies of witty sayings and anecdotes with which to enliven one's epistolary style. The Ottoman Empire reached its peak in size and splendor under the sultan called Suleiman the Magnificent, who ruled from 1520 to 1566 and was known to the Turks as Suleiman the Law-Giver. But the Arab military adventures do not seem to have been intended as a religious war of conversion. Men fought for their religion, the prospect of booty and because their friends and fellow tribesmen were also doing it. As a result of Arab rule many northern Africans were converted to Islam. Islamic medicine built upon the legacies of Greek and Roman physicians . Henceforth, the organizational principle of the community was not to be mere blood kinship, but the greater brotherhood of all Muslims. Unlike their predecessors, however, they were able to maintain their power, and they retained control of Egypt until the Ottoman conquest in 1517. Once the modern nation state became the norm for government in most Muslim-majority countries shar 'ia took a different kind of role in Muslim society, as states favored Western-style government and constitutional democracy. In innumerable, almost indescribable ways, it is also the central fact of Muslim life. Europe's worldwide nineteenth-century search for raw materials, markets, military bases, and colonies eventually touched most of what had been the Arab empire. The Indian contribution was to substitute a single sign (in this case meaning "3" and meaning "2") indicating the number of signs in each cluster of similar signs. The first great advance on the inherited mathematical tradition was the introduction of "Arabic" numerals, which actually originated in India and which simplified calculation of all sorts and made possible the development of algebra. His reign was long - from 724 to 743 - and during it the Arab empire reached its greatest extent. Consequently, the Holy Text could only be collected as a single corpus - "between the two covers" - after the death of Muhammad. Save by His leave? The divide between Sunnis and Shia is the largest and oldest in the history of Islam. How did Islam change in the Middle East? Muslims believe that their sacred text, the Quran, is the absolute word of God as it was revealed to the prophet Muhammad. Under a minor chieftain named Othman, groups of Turkish-speaking peoples in Anatolia were united in the Ottoman confederation which, by the second half of the fourteenth century, had conquered much of present-day Greece and Turkey and was threatening Constantinople. Islam appeared in the form of a book: the Quran. He also destroyed the idols in the Ka'bah, to put an end forever to pagan practices there. But if you see, a red iconlike this (), it means you are NOT logged in. 'Umar, who served as caliph for ten years, ended his rule with a significant victory over the Persian Empire. The Reach of Islam in East Africa. Because there was considerable interest in new varieties - for nutritive and medicinal purposes - many new plants were introduced: sorghum, for example, which had recently been discovered in Africa. For these necessities the 'Abbasid traders exchanged a wide variety of products: pearls, livestock, paper, sugar, and (a specialty of the Islamic world) luxurious cloth. But the full and final revelation came through Muhammad, the last of all prophets, and was embodied in the Quran, which completes and supersedes all previous revelations. Although rigorous, however, the fast, by Quranic injunction, also admits of a warm compassion. Another unusual variation of calligraphy, not often used nowadays, is the style called muthanna (Arabic for "doubled"). Photo: A Moorish-built tower soars above Guadalquivir River in Seville. As Islam spread across the Arabian Peninsula and later across North Africa and the Middle East, it had an aggregating effect. In Mecca the rites are concluded by the tawaf of the return, the Circling of the Ka'bah seven times on foot, an act implying that all human activity must have God at the center. Photo: A forest of eight hundred and fifty pillars connected by Moorish arches lines the great mosque of Cordoba. IslamiCity is making such material available in its effort to advance understanding of humanitarian, education, democracy, and social justice issues, etc. Muhammad was also the exemplar of the teachings he had brought them from God: the teachings of the Quran, which, for centuries, have guided the thought and action, the faith and conduct, of innumerable men and women, and which ushered in a distinctive era in the history of mankind. Established by the prophet Muhammad, the religion of Islam unified a diverse cultural region that spans several countries. In Lebanon missionaries from several countries founded a network of schools and universities. The Muslim view, moreover, is that the Quran supersedes earlier revelations; it is regarded as their summation and completion. Ibn al-Haytham, for example, wrote The Book of Optics, in which he gives a detailed treatment of the anatomy of the eye, correctly deducing that the eye receives light from the object perceived and laying the foundation for modern photography. The major exception to this arrangement is the opening surah, "al-Fatihah," which contains seven verses and which serves as an introduction to the entire revelation: In the Name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate. The second pillar, devotional worship or prayer, requires Muslims to pray five times a day - the dawn prayer, the noon prayer, the afternoon prayer, the sunset prayer, and the evening prayer - while facing toward the Ka'bah, the House of God, in Mecca. Photo: The Ka'bah, spiritual axis of the Muslim world, stands in the courtyard of Mecca's Sacred Mosque. Politically and economically, the Mongol invasions were disastrous. As societies become larger and more complex, its people become more likely to join monotheistic religions. Thirdly, one of the allied tribes which had pledged support to the Muslims in the Battle of Badr, but had then proved lukewarm when the fighting started, was expelled from Medina one month after the battle. The coming of Islam saw a general decline in the status of . This tolerance was typical of Islam. Today, therefore, one can hear Arabic spoken - at least for religious purposes - from Mauritania on the Atlantic, across Africa and most of Asia, and as far east as Indonesia and the Philippines. The mandates were inconsistent with British promises to the Arabs and, furthermore, contrary to the recommendations of President Wilson's King-Crane Commission, a group sent to the Middle East in 1919 specifically to ascertain the wishes of the Arab peoples. Despite the great mass of words, the full explanation for Muslim victory still eludes us. More than 60 percent of the Muslim population lives not in the Middle East, but in Asia. Photo: A fourteenth-century manuscript of a pharmaceutical text. the Everlasting; There were four persons obviously marked for leadership: Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, who had not only accompanied Muhammad to Medina ten years before, but had been appointed to take the place of the Prophet as leader of public prayer during Muhammad's last illness; 'Umar ibn al-Khattab, an able and trusted Companion of the Prophet; 'Uthman ibn 'Affan, a respected early convert; and 'Ali ibn Abi Talib, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law. Thus the number 323 was expressed like this: The Egyptians actually wrote them from right to left, but they are set down above from left to right to call g attention to the similarities of the systems. Photo: This eighth century manuscript from Mecca or Medina is one of the two oldest known existing copies of the Quran. Because Islam became the predominant religion of . From 821 onward Tahir and his descendants ruled Khorasan as an independent state, with the tacit consent of the 'Abbasids. In sum, modernization has not been entirely synonymous with Westernization. Trade flourished and the Middle East experienced an economic and cultural renaissance. Another distinctive Turkish contribution is the tughra, an elaborate and highly stylized rendering of the names of the Ottoman sultan, originally used to authenticate imperial decrees. According to the chronicles of the day, the city had 700 mosques, some 60,000 palaces, and 70 libraries - one reportedly housing 500,000 manuscripts and employing a staff of researchers, illuminators, and book binders. Photo: The Crusader castle at Sidon in Lebanon was abandoned after the final defeat of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem. Within a few years the Muslims had also conquered parts of Egypt to the South and Anatolia and Armenia to the North. They recovered, however, and later, under the leadership of a new sultan, Murad II, besieged Constantinople for the second time. Under the Samanids, the Persian language, written in the Arabic alphabet, first reached the level of a literary language and poets like Rudaki, Daqiqi, and Firdausi flourished. Because of administrative paralysis, local governors became increasingly independent and, eventually, revolts broke out. Under 'Abd al-Malik, the Umayyads expanded Islamic power still further. To the east they extended their influence into Transoxania, an area north of the Oxus River in today's Soviet Union, and went on to reach the borders of China. Just a short time before, Muhammad had to leave the city of his birth in fear of his life. The Dome was built in 780, while the mosque was completed in 715. During the second Mongol invasion, Tamerlane had met and very nearly annihilated another rising power: the Ottomans. Photo: Devout Muslims from all over the world gather for the pilgrimage to Mecca, for nearly fourteen centuries one of the most impressive religious gatherings in the world. Here, you will find quick shortcuts to major topics & hubs under IslamiCity. Mathematics during the Golden Age of Islam, especially during the 9th and 10th centuries, was built on Greek mathematics (Euclid, Archimedes, Apollonius) and Indian mathematics (Aryabhata, Brahmagupta).Important progress was made, such as full development of the decimal place-value system to include decimal fractions, the first systematised study of algebra, and advances in geometry and . This section is more for the technologically minded. President Carter of the United States brought the leaders of Egypt and Israel together in the United States and himself traveled to the Middle East in an attempt to persuade at least these two countries to conclude a peace treaty, and in March 1979 Egypt and Israel signed a treaty to which the United States was also a signatory. Related Suggestions This is a great article i ever seen Ma.Shaa.Allah. [2] While the Black Death's mortality and impact in Europe has received a great deal of attention, the same cannot be said for the case of the Black Death in the Middle East. In fact, it's hard to . The Turkish defeat in the First World War (in which the Ottoman Empire sided with Germany and the Central Powers) finally discredited the Young Turks, however, and paved the way for the success of a new nationalist movement under the leadership of an army officer named Mustafa Kemal, later known as Ataturk or "Father of the Turks." World section is for the News Buds. Whether or not Islam provided the motivation for early Muslim imperialism, it could be used to provide justification for it - in the same way that it had previously been used to support Muhammad's own actions against his opponents. They collected and corrected previous astronomical data, built the world's first observatory, and developed the astrolabe, an instrument that was once called "a mathematical jewel." But he also introduced much needed reforms. The 1967 war triggered underground warfare by Palestinian militants, whose attacks were primarily aimed at Israel, but also included strikes in Europe and hijackings on international air routes. The sublime "Verse of the Throne" is perhaps one of the most famous: God - There is no god but He, After extending Islam throughout the Middle East, the Arabs began to assimilate the cultures of the peoples they had subdued. It is uncertain whether the Arabs or the Indians filled this need by inventing the zero, but in any case the problem was solved: now the new system could show neatly the difference between XXX II (32) and CCC II (302). In the thirteenth century still another threat to the Muslim world appeared in the land beyond the Oxus: the Mongols. There were also, however, organizations which united the diverse peoples. Photo: The diwani script (top) and the so called "royal" diwani (below) were developed by Ottoman calligraphers for use on state documents. Arabic calligraphy therefore came to be used not only in producing copies of the Quran (its first and for many centuries its most important use), but also for all kinds of other artistic purposes as well on porcelain and metalware, for carpets and other textiles, on coins, and as architectural ornament (primarily on mosques and tombs but also, especially in later years, on other buildings as well). As Jewish forces were victorious - and as stories spread that some 250 Arab civilians had been massacred in a village called Deir Yassin - thousands of Palestinians fled, among the first of today's 3.4 million refugees and exiles. The men most responsible for encouraging the study of geometry were the sons of Musa ibn Shakir, al-Mamurl's court astronomer. . Militarily formidable, they were also the first power to defeat the Mongols in open combat when, in 1260, the Mongols moved against Palestine and Egypt. Although individual Turkish generals had already gained considerable, and at times decisive, power in Mesopotamia and Egypt during the tenth and eleventh centuries, the coming of the Seljuks signaled the first large-scale penetration of the Turkish elements into the Middle East. Although the Umayyads favored their own region of Syria, their rule was not without accomplishments. Welcome to the world's oldest and most recognized Islamic Web site. In 1824 Mahmud II finally broke the power of the Janissaries, brought in German advisers to restructure the army, and launched a modernization program. The Semites and Greeks traditionally assigned numerical values to their letters and used them as numerals. They were polytheistic and reaped all the political problems associated with polytheism. In the Arabian Peninsula the Ottomans penetrate to al-Hasa on the Arabian Gulf and to Mocha on the Red Sea. Ishaq ibn Hunayn and Thabit ibn Qurrah, for example, prepared a critical edition of Euclid's Elements, while other scholars translated a commentary on Euclid originally written by a mathematician and inventor from Egypt, and still others translated at least eleven major works by Archimedes, including a treatise on the construction of a water clock. The demands on trade also generated development of crafts. We prepared this quick tour to help you get familiar with the new design so you find your way around the new site much quicker. An elite corps of slave soldiers conscripted from the subject population of the empire, they were carefully selected on the basis of physique and intelligence, educated, trained, introduced to Islam, and formed into one of the most formidable military corps ever known. Important books were written on soil analysis, water, and what kinds of crops were suited to what soil. . The criticisms that religious men in Medina and elsewhere had voiced of Umayyad policy - particularly the pursuit of worldly goals - were not lost on 'Umar who, reversing the policy of his predecessors, discontinued the levy of a poll tax on converts. Because of the increasingly disruptive part played by the Janissaries, the empire, in a series of eighteenth-century wars, slowly lost territory. An exemplary leader, he lived simply, assiduously fulfilled his religious obligations, and was accessible and sympathetic to his people. Further east, it was also influenced by . Even in his own clan there were those who rejected his teachings, and many merchants actively opposed the message. Requiring a high degree of engineering skill, qanats were built some fifty feet underground with a very slight inclination over long distances to tap underground water and were provided with manholes so that they could be cleaned and repaired. Even in China (which has a Muslim population of some forty million) and the Central Asian republics of the CIS (ex-USSR), Arabic can be heard in the shahadah, in prayer, and in the chanting of the Quran. It was not until the Umayyad Dynasty from 661 to 750that Islamic and Arabic culture began to truly spread. Although it led to an improvement in Egyptian-Israeli relations which resulted in Israeli evacuation of some occupied Egyptian territory and the opening of the Suez Canal to Israeli ships, however, this separate peace treaty did nothing to bring about withdrawal of Israeli occupation forces from East Jerusalem, the West Bank, and the Golan Heights of Syria and left untouched the root cause of the entire problem- that is, the status of the Palestinians. Islam spread from the Middle East to take hold across North Africa during the second half of the 7th century CE when the Umayyad Caliphate (661-750 CE) . The fifth pillar of Islam is the pilgrimage to Mecca - the hajj. But then, in 1380, a new Turko-Mongol confederation was hammered together by another world conqueror: Tamerlane, who claimed descent from Genghis Khan. He also brought the semi-autonomous rulers in various provinces under control, with the exception of the defiant and able Muhammad 'Ali in Egypt. Muhammad's Mission and Campaigns. The tawaf of the return is the last essential devotion of the pilgrimage; now the pilgrims have become hajjis - those who have completed the hajj. The preserving of them wearies Him not; It was a necessary step, but its outcome was dominance of the caliphate by its own praetorian guard. Temporary reforms under various sultans, and the still formidable, if weakened, military prowess of the Ottomans helped maintain their empire. The declaration was interpreted by key Zionist leaders as support for a sovereign Jewish state, but this interpretation has been disputed. This material became the basis for what is called the sunnah, or "practice" of the Prophet - the deeds, utterances, and taqrir (unspoken approval) of Muhammad. As an effect of the Crusades, the Muslim's distrust in the Europeans increased. Photo: Hajjis spend one night camped at Muzdalifah between 'Arafat and Mina. The Alhambra was begun in 1238 by Muhammad ibn al-Ahmar who, to buy safety for his people when King Ferdinand of Aragon laid siege to Granada, once rode to Ferdinand's tent and humbly offered to become the king's vassal in return for peace. In the Arabic language Muslim means, "one who submits to God (or faith)". Thereunto we give them the pact of Allah and the protection of His Prophet, the caliphs and the believers. Most important of all, he introduced Arabic as the language of administration, replacing Greek and Pahlavi. From Baghdad's large urban population, for example, came craftsmen of every conceivable sort: metalworkers, leatherworkers, bookbinders, papermakers, jewelers, weavers, druggists, bakers, and many more. Islamic law is thus different from any other legal system; it differs from canon law in that it is not administered by a church hierarchy; in Islam there is nothing that corresponds to a "church" in the Christian sense. Non-Muslims are often struck by the range of styles found in the Quran. 'Abd al-Malik established a system of postal routes to expedite his communications throughout the far flung empire. Establishment of a national home did not imply a Jewish state, the commission said. ", Over the years, what started as a fortress slowly evolved under Ibn al-Ahmar's successors into a remarkable series of delicately lovely buildings, quiet courtyards, limpid pools, and hidden gardens. Still other intellectuals, such as the Egyptian Muhammad 'Abduh and his Syrian disciple Rashid Rida, undertook to reform the Muslim educational system and to restate Islamic values in terms of modern concepts - needs deeply felt by most Muslim thinkers of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The Christians permitted Muslims to work, serve in the army, own land, and even practice their religion - all concessions to the importance of Muslims in Spain's still prosperous economy. In the wake of the Balfour Declaration, and during the British mandate, Jewish immigration increased. With the death of Muhammad, the Muslim community was faced with the problem of succession. As the Prophet said, "The best of prayers is the prayer of the Day of 'Arafat.". Photo: The Mopti Mosque in the West African Republic of Mali. Perhaps, this is the most notable impact of Islam at the coast of East Africa. By the end of the 1970s the Arabs, having assumed control of their own destinies, had emerged as full and independent participants in the affairs of the world. The most stable of the successor dynasties founded in the ninth and tenth centuries was that of the Fatimids, a branch of Shi'is. All of the letters are strictly speaking consonants, and unlike the Roman alphabet used for English and most European languages Arabic writing goes from right to left. Science section features not just Science but also Nature and Technology. Neither power had played a major role in the early phases of penetration, but this changed as they developed conflicting interests with regard to the Arab-Israeli dispute, the construction of the Aswan Dam in Egypt, the rise of a number of radical governments in the area, and the emergence of the Arab world as a pivotal supplier of oil to the world. Geographical unity, however, was but one factor. One was the gold mines of the Hijaz which were reopened around 750, reworked for about four hundred years, and then, in 1931, explored again by Karl Twitchell, who was searching for minerals in that area on behalf of King 'Abd al-'Aziz of Saudi Arabia. As an important trading post with vibrant economic activity, the city of Mecca, in the Arabian Peninsula, was a valuable setting for Islam, providing important context for Islam's relationship to trade. In Syria, for example, many Christians who had been involved in bitter theological disputes with Byzantine authorities- and persecuted for it- welcomed the coming of Islam as an end to tyranny. The introduction of numerous varieties of fruits and vegetables and other plants to the West via the Islamic empire was, however, largely the result of the vast expansion of trade during the Golden Age. Al-Mamun died in 833, in the town of Tarsus, and was succeeded by his brother, al-Mu'tasim, under whose rule the symptoms of decline that had manifested themselves earlier grew steadily worse. The Quran is divided into 114 surahs, or chapters, and the surahs are conventionally assigned to two broad categories: those revealed at Mecca and those revealed at Medina. 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